Solidarity and Politeness

Tu and Vous

According to Brown and Gilman (1960), Tu and Vous began as a genuine difference of singular and plural. The distinction is that grammatically there is a singular you (T) and a plural you (V) but usage requires that you use vous with the individuals or certain occasions. In a book entitled savoire-vivre en France, it is said that Tu should be use between spouse, close relatives, or the people working or living closely together, while Vous should be used with strangers, to those who have no ties of any kinds, between inferior and superior.

Since there is no precise rule for shifting from vous to tu, it is best to wait until the other person uses it to address you before you use it to address him or her. If you cannot judge who has ‘power’ or which proper conditions to use tu or vous, it is better to use politeness and wait until the other use ‘solidarity’. 

Address Terms

Address by title alone is the least intimate form of address in that title usually designates ranks or occupations as in colonel, doctor, or waiter. Some language employ the kinship terms to use address terms. One of the other peculiarity systems of naming and addressing is giving a name to and address to the non-human like pets. there is an interesting terms said by Robinson about the address terms. He argues that a society in which a person’s status derives from the achievements, a few distinctions is made. 

Politeness

In using a language, we use a device that the language employ to show certain relationship to other. We must use the language properly. We can demonstrate our feelings to other and our awareness of social controls. Such awareness is also shown through a general politeness in the use of language. It does not mean that we must always be polite. Oppositely, impoliteness may happen depends on the existence of standard or norms of politeness. Some languages have a complex rules of politeness, for instance, Javanese, one of the important language in Indonesia, is a language in which it is nearly impossible to say anything without indicating the social relationship between the speaker and the listener in terms of status and familiarity.

Analysing Implicature in A Dialog of Bahwa Cinta Itu Ada The Movie

A dialog from ‘Bahwa Cinta Itu Ada’ The Movie.
Suatu siang di kampus ITB, para anak muda berbaris untuk registrasi penerimaan mahasiswa baru di tahun ajaran baru, Seorang laki-laki bernama Poltak berpura-pura mengambil pena yang jatuh di tanah untuk menyerobot barisan. Ia mendekati seorang gadis manis yang sedang asyik mengisi form pendaftaran.
Part 1
Poltak    : “Namaku Poltak. Poltak Saut Hutabarat. Asal Pematang Siantar. Masih keluarga dekat dengan Adam Malik, wakil presiden Republik Indonesia.” Ia mengenalkan diri pada si gadis sambil mengambil kesempatan untuk memajukan urutan  antriannya.
Pria Bertopi        :  “Hei-hei..ada orang nehh…”
Poltak            : “Apa seh kau??” (ia menatap sebal ke si pria bertopi)
Giliran si pria bertopi memperkenalkan diri ke gadis itu
Pria Bertopi        : “Saya Fuad dari Surabaya, ”
Si gadis cuek aja, tetap asyik dengan formulirnya.
Pria bertopi    : “Mahmoud Fuad Juriatno lengkapnya. Tonggoe Bung Tomo dan para pahlawan yang menurunkan bendera di Hotel Oranye.” Ia lalu menyodorkan tangan untuk berjabat
Si gadis menyambut uluran tangan dan berjabat dengan si Fuad, pria bertopi dari Surabaya tadi. Setelah aksi si Fuad, giliran seorang pria berkacamata tebal mendatangi si gadis tersebut.
________________________________________________________________________
Part 2
Pria berkaca mata    : “Gun..Gun….Gunarakan, dari USA.” (Ia memperkenalkan diri)
Beni            : “Wah, lu dari USA? (Pronounced ju-es-ei)
Gunar            : “yu-es-ak!!??”
Beni            : “eh, iya Ju Es Ei??”
Gunar            : “Urang Sunda Asliii…” (tertawa cekikikan)
Beni            : “iyaah, terserah deh…
    Hai.. Beni rozali, dari jakarta.” (berkenalan dengan si gadis)
Si gadis hanya memandang sepintas, lalu kembali asyik dengan formulirnya.
Fuad            : “Wah,  Jakartaaaa. .” (seakan kagum karena ketemu orang Jakarta)
________________________________________________________________________
Part 3
Fuad lalu berdehem sambil melihat ke arah laki-laki berbaju resmi ala kantor yang berdiri tak jauh dari kerumunan mereka. Si laki-laki yang lagi diam saja baru paham maksud Si Fuad setelah didehem tiga kali. Si laki-laki itu bernama Slamet.
Slamet    : “Ssss,, saya Slamet, Slamet Hartono dari Trenggale.” (Ia menunjukkan a clumsy expression in his introduction)
Fuad            : “Wuiiihh, Keturunane Empu Sendhok iki, ” (Fuad tertawa)
Poltak menimpali    : “Antik!?.” (Sambil tertawa juga)
Slamet hanya diam saja melihat tingkah mereka. Saat itu Slamet mengantri sambil membawa dua kardus berlapis koran yang ditali dengan raffia.
Gunar            : “Mau daftar atau mau transmigasi neh??, hey, hey, hehehe. . .”
Yang lainnya pun tertawa.
________________________________________________________________________

Part 4
Poltak menanyai si gadis: “Kau pasti Jennifer Miles kan? Yang main di film plastian itu kan?”
Si gadis        : “Aku Ria dari Padang. Ria Marcelina.”
Poltak    : “Orang seberang? Sama kita. (tersenyum)  Kapan kau datang? Naik bus apa kau ke sini?”
Ria            : “Garuda.” (masih tetap cuek)
Poltak            : “Mana ada bis lintas Sumatera yang namanya Garuda?” (tertawa)
Fuad    : “Tak, kuwi pesawat,Tak. Udhuk bis Garudha. Aku yo kampungan tapi enggak ndheso koyo kowe."

______________Thank You and Happy Analyzing______

Kita ngumpul kapan? Ntar kalo ngumpul, tolong udah bawa hasil analisis masing-masing yah..ntar tinggal ditambal kurang-kurangnya ajah.
Adapun bagian masing2:
Part 1: semua analisis dhewe-dhewe sek, engko ketemu digabung. Part 2: Badrul kamal As Salimi. Part 3: Yessiana El Mufidah. Part 4: Siti Anisah Nayyiroh.
Silahkan  mengajukan enaknya kapan? Sepertinya aku prefer hari Senin, kalau malam aku nggak bisa.
________________________________________________________________________

Acting and Conversing

Speech Acts     
In speech acts, J.L Austin has a theory about the performative acts in which a person is not just saying something but it is actually doing something if certain real world conditions are met. He pointed out that perforamtives should met felicity conditions in order to be successful. A conventional procedures,  all participants must execute the procedures, and finally the necessary thoughts, feelings, and intentions must be present in all parties. Austin devides performatives into five categories; verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives, and expositives.

On the other side, Searle argued that we can speak minimally at three kinds of acts. There are utterance acts which refers to the fact that we must utter words and sentences when we want to say anything at all, prepositional acts which refers to those matters that have to do with referring and predicitng, and illocutionary acts which refers to the intents of the speakers. As the additinon, Searle also regulates some rules in governing promise-making. Those are the propositional content, preparatory rules, sincerity rules and the essential rules.
In oppose to Austin, who concentrate his study on how the speakers realize their intentions in speaking, Searle focuses on how listeners respond to the utterances. Both Austin and Searle recognize that the people use language to achieve the variety of objectives.

Cooperation and Face; Grice and Goffman
Based on Grice’s view, it is stated that we are able to converse each other because of the recognition of common goals and the specific ways of achieving them. The acts in conversation should in line with cooperative principle, the general principle in which a mutual engagement happen between listeners and speakers. There are four maxims of cooperative principles (Grice; 1975). Those are quantity which makes the contribution as the required informatives, quality in which the belief should not be falsely said or lack adequate evidence, relation as the simple injunctions, and manner to avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity.

In the Griece sense, a conversation is a cooperative activity depends on the speakers and listeners sharing a set of assumption. But, it is also cooperative in the sense that speakers and listeners tend to accept each other for what they claim to be, that is, the accepts of ‘face’ that the other offers. Goffman (1955) called ‘face’ as the work of presenting faces to each others, protecting our own’s face and the other’s face. In other word, ‘the affective state of the speaker’ and ‘his profile of identity’ are much the same as the idea of ‘face’.

EYL; Characteristics of Young Learner

     The art of teaching is essentially an art to evoke the natural curiosity of young minds (Anatole France, 20th century).

Young Learners (YLs) refer to children from the ages of four to twelve. Increasingly, though, children as young as three are being formally introduced to English as a foreign language. According to Sarah Phillips (1993), young learners are children from the first year of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age. However, as any children's teacher will know, it is not so much the children's age that counts in the classroom as how mature they are. There are many factors that influence children's maturity: for example, their culture and environment (city or rural), sex, the expectations of their peers and parents.

Young children do not come to the language classroom with empty hand. They bring a well-established set of instincts, skills and characteristics which will help them to learn another language. We need to identify those and make the most of them. For example, children characteristics are curious, outspoken, active, inquisitive nature, and like to move around.
While they are skilled in:
- being very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily understanding the      individual words;
- having great ability in using limited language creatively;
- frequently learning indirectly rather than directly;
- taking great pleasure in finding and creating fun in which they do;
- creating  a ready imagination.

Language; Discourse and Text

Discourse

Originally the word 'discourse' comes from Latin 'discursus' which denoted 'conversation, speech'. According to some linguist, they have illustrated by the following definition: Discourse is a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative" (Crystal 1992:25). On the other hand Dakowska, being aware of differences between kinds of discourses indicates the unity of communicative intentions as a vital element of each of them.
There are seven criteria which have to be fulfilled to qualify either a written or a spoken text as a discourse has been suggested by Beaugrande (1981).

These include:
·    Cohesion - grammatical relationship between parts of a sentence essential for its interpretation;
·    Coherence - the order of statements relates one another by sense.
·    Intentionality - the message has to be conveyed deliberately and consciously;
·    Acceptability - indicates that the communicative product needs to be satisfactory in that the audience approves it;
·    Informativeness - some new information has to be included in the discourse;
·    Situationality - circumstances in which the remark is made are important;
·    Intertextuality - reference to the world outside the text or the interpreters' schemata;

Nowadays, however, not all of the above mentioned criteria are perceived as equally important in discourse studies, therefore some of them are valid only in certain methods of the research (Beaugrande 1981, cited in Renkema 2004:49).

3.2    Text
What is text? The answer that is often given is that a text is a sequence of sentence. This answer is clearly unsatisfactory. Text is two or more utterances that must be cohesion or connectedness one to another.

A long tradition of text linguistics that has persisted in northern Europe made some attempts about the text analysis. First, it began with attempts to account for how sentences are linked together using linguistics resources. Than, Werlich (1976) described of how linguistic features characterize strategies used in different text type (narrative, descriptive, expository and argumentative). Likewise, the prague school and it’s followers, among whom was Michael hallyday, focused on how the construction of individual construction in terms of their theme (their starting point) and rheme (what was being said about the topic) contributed to the larger pattern of information in extended texts (see fries 1983; eiler 1986; francis 1989; firbas 1992)

For example:
Werlich was enormously influential among German EFL teachers.
The explanation from the example above is that the theme (the starting point- usually the grammatical subject) is werlich, and the rheme is what is said about him (that he was enormously influential). We can repeat different number of theme over a number of sentences, and use the rheme of the one sentence in the theme of the next sentence are among the preoccupations of the prague school linguist, and they represent a major strand of functional (as defined in halliday 1997: 16) approaches to text.

    There are approaches in analyses text. First is concerning the cognitive processing of extended writing texts, and second is rethorical structure analysis.

1.    Concerning the cognitive processing of extended writing texts.
       The steps of this approaches are:
o    we need to activate a necessary scheme (or mental presentation)
o    we have to infer (if we do not know it). Since this is not stated explicitly.
o    we need to give the implicit meaning.

Text and Discourse

Actually there is no agreement among linguists as to the use of the term discourse in that some use it in reference to texts, while others claim it denotes speech. Consequently, she suggests using terms 'text' and 'discourse' almost interchangeably betokening the former refers to the linguistic product, while the latter implies the entire dynamics of the processes (Dakowska 2001:81). According to Cook (1990:7) novels, as well as short conversations or groans might be equally rightfully named discourses. But, sometimes there is a distinction made between text and discourse.

Text is the products of language use. For example: public notice saying cycling forbidden, novel, an academic article, or indeed a transcript of a conversation. Whereas, discourse is the process of meaning-creation and interaction, whether in writing or in speech. Such as: communication and feed back. It means that Discourse inclined to verbal communication. Both approaches have made significant contributions to applied linguistics, and go beyond the notion of language in social context, that is to say attending to the producers and receiver of language as much as to the language forms themselves.

The clearer explanation will be explained the next article.

Communication by Written language

Written language is used in formal form and informal form. In formal form of written language,  you must follow the characteristic of writing, like when you  write a paper or letters. When you write in informal forms like on chatting and sending sort message, there is no penalty for spelling and punctuation errors. 

To write speech communication, please try not to use words you are not comfortable pronouncing or do not know the meaning of because it can lead to a less fluently delivered speech. Written texts are typically not perceived and interpreted at the same times and places. The written texts can be used in different ways, re-employed, duplicated, distributed to particular persons or groups in new situations, and these activities can be regarded as proper communicative acts. A written text and its components parts (letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs) have the character of objects; they are persistent but not temporally organized.

 Characteristics of Written Language
a.    Vocabulary
In both of languages always need vocabulary, but in writing neede letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs.
b.    Grammar
Grammar is always being needed in any kinds of language even in writing or speech even less in written language.
c.    Punctuation
There must be punctuations in written language that the use is the same with intonation in spoken language.

Spoken language and speech communication

In a normal speech communication situation, a speaker tries to influence the listener by making him perceive, understand, and feel at the same time and place. The speaker's speech behavior is continuously accompanied and supplemented by various non-verbal signals, which means that the verbal message as such is often much less explicit than in writing, interpretations may be made more precise and complex through gestures, facial expressions, tones of voice etc. 

After all, the use of an utterance in a normal situation is involved face-to-face interaction because it presented in the same time and place like what said in previews sentence and the listener responds all the time the whole speech with the act of speaker until understand what told. Spoken communication is not always in formal speech but also on chat or sending sort message. In this kind of communication, there is no penalty for spelling and punctuation errors.

Characteristics of Spoken Language

a.    Vocabulary
When you speak ofcourse you need vocabularies because it is one of media to speak and without vocabulary there will not be a speech.
b.    Grammar
As the same with what was said in the previous part, language has grammar factor. In informal communication, there is no penalty for it.
c.    Intonation
In speech we can see the intonation directly but in writing we just can imagine how is the intonation through the punctuations there and it is not always the same with what the author’s want.

Language as Discourse : Speech and Wrting in Applied Linguistic

  Introduction
Discourse generally is refers to spoken language and written language. There are differencies between both of them in hearer or reader. Sometimes the reader can not understand what author wants, its because most of people avoid difficult conversasional with partners then when they find a written-spoken they will difficult to understand well. Writing typically done in one time and one place, whereas reading it always in other time.

There are three important factors that must be noticed in both written language and spoken language. Firstly is about four skills that constructed around a written-spoken dichotomy. Means these four skills will not be without written-spoken dichotomy and always related to these factors. Second factor is about grammar that may be change depend on the owner’s of data wether in spoekn or written. The last one that always questioned is about the rules of sentences such as how to arrange clause, complementation, and other kinds of sentences.

In speech and writing there will be the differencies model of kind of written language and spoken language in the way how people talk and how people write it in any kinds of writing and speaking. This also related to text and discourse that discuses about the process of how to create meanings in texts and also how do we interact to kind of texts whether in writing or speaking in many kinds of text such as novel, academic article or other kinds of texts. There will be discourse analysis that concern in distributions elements of linguistic in escalated texts and links between the texts and its contexts. Discourse analysis is as general approach of linguistic.

Speech Acts By J.L. Austin

                            

In speech acts, J.L Austin has a theory about the performative acts in which a person is not just saying something but it is actually doing something if certain real world conditions are met. He pointed out that perforamtives should met felicity conditions in order to be successful. A conventional procedures,  all participants must execute the procedures, and finally the necessary thoughts, feelings, and intentions must be present in all parties. Austin devides performatives into five categories; verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives, and expositives.

On the other side, Searle argued that we can speak minimally at three kinds of acts. There are utterance acts which refers to the fact that we must utter words and sentences when we want to say anything at all, prepositional acts which refers to those matters that have to do with referring and predicitng, and illocutionary acts which refers to the intents of the speakers. As the additinon, Searle also regulates some rules in governing promise-making. Those are the propositional content, preparatory rules, sincerity rules and the essential rules.

In oppose to Austin, who concentrate his study on how the speakers realize their intentions in speaking, Searle focuses on how listeners respond to the utterances. Both Austin and Searle recognize that the people use language to achieve the variety of objectives.

Morphological Errors (Only morphemes)

      
a)    Morpheme shift
I haven't satten down and writ__ it (I haven't sat down and written it)
I had forgot__ aboutten it (I had forgotten about it)
He point__ outed that . . . (He pointed out that . . .)
You __ have to do learn that (you do have to learn)
what that add__ ups to (adds up to)
who could __form at a . . . (perform at a higher level)
b)    Morpheme substitutions
Sometimes I have putten it in . . . (Sometimes I put  it in . . .)
a timeful remark (timely)
By his own admittance (admission)
Where's the fire distinguisher? (Where's the fire extinguisher?)
In accordance with those types of speech error classification, there are also some types which is considered as speech error
a.    Silent Pause    : it is a condition by which the pausing is exists during the speech. There is a period of no speech between words speech of talking. For example, turn on the // heater switch.
b.    Filled pause    : it is a gap which is filled by a…. ah,,,, er…. uumm.. etc. for example  turn on, ummm, the heater switch.
c.    Repeats        : basically the speaker intends to say something, though he/she makes speech error through repeating one of the words in a row. For example, turn on the heater/ the heater switch.
 

Types of Speech Error

Types of Speech Error

A.    Phonological Substitutions (Only lexemes)

a)    Perseveration

·    John gave the goy a ball (John gave the boy a ball)

b)    Anticipation

·    alsho share (also share)

c)    Feature Substitution

·    tap stobs ([^Voiced]) (tab stops)

·    Cedars of Lemadon ([^Nasal]) Cedars of Lebanon

B.    Lexical (Word) Selection Errors (Only lexemes)

a)    Semantically Based Substitution Errors

v    Antonym Substitution

It's too damn hot . . . , I mean, cold in here

He rode his bicycle tomorrow (yesterday)

All I need is something for my elbows (shoulders)

v    Synonym Substitution is not perceived as an error:

I was starving (ravenous)

on the couch (sofa)

on the pier (dock)

b)    Phonologically Based Word Substitutions

He has a new commuter (computer)

The instructions gave no inclination . . . indication as to how to do it

verbal outfit (output)

his immoral soul (immortal)

c)    Word Substitutions with Morphological Stranding

they are Turking talkish (talking Turkish)

it waits to pay (pays to wait)

you have to square it facely (face it squarely)

d)    Blends (Only lexemes)

My stummy hurts (stomach/tummy)

There's a dreeze blowing through the room (draft/breeze)

It was maistly, ah, mostly his doing (mainly/mostly)

At the end of todays lection (lecture/lesson)

This is not much of a universary (university/nursery)

e)    General Malapropisms : penggunaan kata yang tidak tepat.

a peckeral (cockerel)

He picked some gutter pups (butter cups)

I'm ravished! (ravenous!)

It's the Chinese who practice Acapulco (acupuncture)

He was concreted (cremated)

f)    Spoonerisms (Can you figure out the targets?)

Work is the curse of the drinking class.

You have hissed all the mystery lectures, I saw you fight that liar behind the gymnasium, and, in short, you have tasted the whole worm (Reverend Spooner)

Speech Error

Definition

Speech Error is the disruption in the production of speech through a conscious or unconscious linguistic deviation from the apparently intended form of an utterance. Linguistic speech error analysis is based on the hypothesis that the phenomena of deviation observable in different components are limited by the structure of the language and can be described and explained on the basis of grammatical units and regularities and that speech errors cause one to posit inferences to basic mental abilities and representations. (Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics).General Classification of Speech Error

Broadly speaking, there are two major point of speech error classification. The first is called as Articulation disorder. It is deviation or confusion of the main articulator such as the lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, velum, glottis, and the tongue
The second is Phonological Disorder. It is the condition when people could not be able to identify the differences between particular phonemes, for example between /k/ and /t/ in the word “call” and “tall”. However, different pronunciation will lead to different meaning.

Causes of Speech Error
Since it happens either consciously or unconsciously, the condition of the speaker however influences the speech error production. It commonly occurs when speaker is nervous, tired, anxiety, or intoxicated. When people are nervous or anxiety, the metabolism in their body declines which causes the signal inside the body transfers impulse to the brain.

In addition, it derives the adrenalin hormone to do harder which finally engages the heart. This condition consequently influences the irregularity of people. Because of this biological condition, people are stuttering when they are nervous or anxiety.

There is also a physical aspect that causes speech error. For instance, genetic syndrome like Down Syndrome, Speech Development like Autism, Hearing Loss, Illness, Neurological Disorder. Some people with speech problems, particularly articulation disorders, may have hearing problems. Even mild hearing loss may have an impact on how a person reproduces the sounds they hear. Certain birth defects, such as a cleft palate, can interfere with someone's ability to produce speech.

When a person has a cleft palate there is a hole in the roof of the mouth, which affects the movement of air through the oral and nasal passages. There also may be problems with other structures needed for speech, including the lips, teeth, and jaw.

Genetics may also play a role in some speech problems. For example, stuttering seems to run in some families. But in some cases, no one knows exactly what causes a person to have speech problems.

An Introduction To Linguistics

A. What is linguistics?

 Linguistics is the study about the language. It examines the nature, structure, history and the variation in language. 

In general, linguistics is divided into three broad categories; language form, language meanng and language context.

In the study of the nature and structure of language, we study about the grammar, phonology, morphology, and syntax. 

In the area of language meaning, we study about semantics and pragmatics while in the area of context, we can learn the language in terms of interdicsiplinary relations. for example, if you study about the realtion of language and society, your field study is about sociolinguistics. If it examines the relationship between language and thought, it is in the area of psycholinguistics. If you study about language and the brain, it is in the area of neurolinguistics.

Theory of Cooperative Principles by Grice

To identify that the words have or have not implied or intended meaning, the speaker or the writer should consider the pragmatic principles which can influence utterance.

Grice proposed that participants in a communicative exchange are guided by a principle that determines the way in which language is used with maximum efficiency and effect to achieve rational communication. He called it cooperative principle, which consists of four maxims (Grundy, 2000:74).

First, maxims of quantity, in which you should make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange). 

Second, maxims of quality, in which you are not allowed to say what you believe to be false and also you are not allowed to say for which you lack adequate evidence.

Third, maxim of relation, everything you say must be relevant. Fourth, maxim of manner, when you are speaking you have to avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity), be orderly.

Conversational Implicature

Conversational implicature is any meaning implied by or understood from the utterance of a sentence which goes beyond what is strictly said or entailed. For example it is raining might, in specific context, implicate (alternatively, whoever says might implicate) we cannot go for picnic, we had better close the windows and so on (The Concise Oxford dictionary of linguistic, 1997: Online www.yahoo.com).

Grice as quoted by Levinson (1992:126) distinguished conventional implicature into generalized and particularized conventional implicature. He asserts that generalized conversational implicature is implicature that arise without any particular context or special scenario being necessary in addition, Gruncy(2000:81-82) says that generalized conversational implicature arise respective of the context in which it occurs and it has little or nothing do with the most relevant understanding of an utterance; it derives entirely from the maxims, typically from the maxims of quantity and manner. Therefore, generalized conversational implicature is inferable without reference to a special context.

In contrast with the generalized conversational implicature, particularized, conversational implicature require such specific context (context-bound). Besides, all implicature that arise from the maxim of relevance are particularized for utterance whichare relevant only with respect to the particular topic or issue at hand. In addition, most of the exploitation or flouting maxims can be categorized as particularized implicature (Levinson, 1992; 126).

In short, those implicature have a special importance for linguistic theory, since, it is in particular will be hard to distinguish from the semantic content of linguistic expression, because such implicature will be routinely associated with the relevant expression in all ordinary context.

Implicature in Discourse Analysis

 Sometimes, when we are talking with other people, the problem happened is easy to express an idea but it is difficult to interpret it because every utterance needs to be interpreted based on its context. It means that what is uttered depends on who, where, when, and in what occasion the utterance appears.

Brown and Yule (1983:1) explain that discourse analysis is committed to an investigation of what and how that language is used so that we can utter everything to another people with the same interpretation. The term implicature is used by Grice (1975) to account for what a speaker can imply, suggest or mean, as distinct from what the speaker literally says.

Yule (1996:36) adds that implicature is a primary example of more being communicated than is said but in order for them to be interpreted, some basic cooperative principle must first be assumed to be in operation. Furthermore, Grice as quoted by Levinson (1992:127) explains that the term of implicature to be a general cover term to stand in contrast to what is said or expressed by the truth condition of expression, and to include all kinds of pragmatic (non-truth-conditional) inference discernible.

The theory of implicature, which is proposed by Herbert Paul Grice, is the one particularly used to analyze the words or utterances. Grice divided implicature into conventional and conversational implicature, and further he distinguished conversational implicature into generalized and particularized implicature.

Conventional implicature is non-truth-conditional inferences that are not derived from super ordinate pragmatic principles like the maxims, but are simply attached by convention to particular lexical items or grounds that it had colored stripes in it and the legend on the tube said, “Actually fight decay”. The lexical item “actually” has a literal meaning or entailment – it means in reality or in actuality, because it is closely associated with the particular lexical item, so, it can be said ad conventional implicature (Grundy, 2000:84).

Discourse Analysis and Pragamtics

A. Discourse Analysis
Discourse is the study about language in use for communication. This field investigates the sequences of utterance or the consequence of speech act, which expose something (subject) presented regularly, systematically in a unity and coherence.

In addition, discourse is related to the linguistic behavior or language in use in a society that is usually formed by a coherence and cohesive sequence of sentences, consists of linguistic units and conveyed either in spoken or in written language.

B. Pragmatics

While discourse analysts explain the interpretation of the elements in question without going outside language, pragmatics resorts to other ambits of human activity. Pragmatics investigates how the transmission of meaning based not only on the linguistic knowledge of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, knowledge about the status of those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, etc.

Basically it also relies on the speaker's interpretative strategy, in which the latter attributes qualities and moods such as rationality, desires and mental states to other speakers. Such interpretative strategy is orientated towards predicting other speakers' behavior, above all their interpretative behavior. In this way, pragmatics discuss how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc.

For example, the sentence "James saw the man with binoculars" could mean that Sherlock observed the man by using binoculars; or it could mean that Sherlock observed a man who was holding binoculars. The meaning of the sentence depends on an understanding of the context and the speaker's intent.

Review Of Discourse Analysis (An Introduction)

Well guys, before we go too far in discussing about the discourse, it is necessary to start our discussion with the discussion, isn't it? so this is it....

A. What is discourse analysis?
Discourse Analysis is an approach we use in analyzing the language context either in a written or spoken text. Discourse anaysis and pragmatics has a close relation, even some people are difficult to separate these two distintive terms. if you study about pragmatics, you analyse how the context can give contribution to the message meant. To anayse that, you the discourse analysis as your approach to examine the pragmatic problems.
 

B. Field Studies in Discourse Analysis
 

As the topics of Discourse Analysis Study, you can choose one of several issues below:
a. The variety of discourse levels of dimensions, such as intonations, gestures, lexicon, meanings, etc.
b. The genre of discourse. it refers to the types of discourse in media, politics, science and business.
c. The relations between discourse and the emergence of syntactic structure
d. The relations between text (discourse) and context
e. The relations between discourse and power
f.  The relations between discourse and interaction

Discourse Anlysis Discussion: Deixis-Part 1

A. Definition
The original word of deixis is derived from the Ancient Greek language,  δεῖξις which means "display, demonstration, or reference"", the meaning "point of reference" in contemporary linguistics having been taken over from Chrysippus

Deixis is a reference in which an expression is relatively interpreted to the particular linguistic context of an utterance. Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and/or place. Words or phrases that require contextual information to convey any meaning
there several kinds of deixis:

a. Person deixis (Who is speaking). Example: I am watching TV now.
b. Time Deixis (The time of speaking), I.e: She has a meeting today
c. Place Deixis (Current locayion of the Speaking). I.e: They are not here today, etc.