The Design of Discourse Production

There will be three process of producing utterances based on Carlk: propositional content, illocutionary content, thematic structure
a.    Propositional content
Propositional content determines what proposition the speaker should utter how the speaker establish and classify a word to another. If the speaker wants to describe a sequence of related events, then the sequening and relation between the events must be a part of plan or propositional representation.” A young girl is standing beside an old man”, so we classify what word should we use to depict what we imagine or see. It could be a girl, a girl who is young, a man, a man who is old.
b.    Illocutionary content
Illocutionary content is on how and what that meaning of utterance is uttered. It could be representative or directive sentence.
e.g :  a. Ada rokok, nggak?
          b. Beri aku rokok
it would be possible to ask anyone a cigarette by ordering first sentence than another while a sentence is in the form of question.
An utterance that will be produced also influences by any factors allied to social status, age, relationship/kinship, and familiarity between the speaker and interlocutors. The language uses will be different.
c.    Thematic structure. 
A thematic structure has close relation to the grammatical function and semantic in sentence usage. A speaker chosees and produces a subject and object that will be used.

General steps to produce language

The process of producing language can be divided into four steps. First is message, where the message that will be presented is processed. Second is functional, where lexical form is identified. Third is positional, where the constituent is formed and affixations are done. Fourth is phonology, where the structure of phonology has been formed.
In first step (message) the speaker collected any information related to the subject. Let see to the example below;
(1)    Egi is watching TV.
Something comes to the speaker mind will be that Egi is a people, this people is a male, he has a television, he is doing a deed, and the deed is watching television.
    In second step (functional), something which is processed in this part is two things. First is choosing lexical which is appropriate with the message that will be delivered, and grammatical information for each lexical. For example is that from many male that the speaker knows, Egi is someone that the speaker aimed, and Egi is the name of this male. The deed which is done is followed by the verb of “watch”, between two arguments Egi and television, Egi is the doer and television is as the recipient.
Second step of functional step is giving function to the words which are chosen (grammatical encoding). This process is related to grammatical and syntactical function. In the example (1) Egi must be related to the function of subject and television as the object.
In third step (positional), the form of lexical is organized for the utterance which will be delivered. This organizing is based on unit of meaning. The word “Egi” is fused by “is watching” not “watching”. It will have no meaning if the word “Egi” is fused by “watching”. If the organizing finished then the relevant affixations is processed (fourth step). The word “watch” is fused by “ing” as inflectional, an affix which has the meaning of continuous event (grammatical encoding).
In forth step (phonological encoding), the result of this process is transferred to phonological step to realize it in utterance form. In this part the phonological rule is applied, such as the phoneme of “watch” should be “wac” not “waj” etc.

Language production

When we are speaking, we do not recognize that how difficult actually when we produce speaking. It seems that it is very easy to line up the words each other without thinking. We feel this thing commonly in our daily conversation with friends, neighbor, and our classmate. Something like this is usual because we are as mother tongue speaker do not aware that actually we need a process to do it.
    To produce language we need appropriate coordination with our neurobiology. This process regarded to several aspects. First is an aspect which related to our assumption as speaker about the interlocutor knowledge (someone which with who we speak). Speaking will have no meaning if the interlocutor does not know what we speak, and then we have to know what the interlocutor knows.
Second is that each speaker practice the cooperative principle. Mean that the speaker will give the clear information in order not to be incompatible. In other side we have to see pragmatic aspect of our utterance such as the differences dialects in Bali, Java, Madura, and Sunda which is the society life in each area is represented with their language.

Morphological Errors (Only morphemes)

      
a)    Morpheme shift
I haven't satten down and writ__ it (I haven't sat down and written it)
I had forgot__ aboutten it (I had forgotten about it)
He point__ outed that . . . (He pointed out that . . .)
You __ have to do learn that (you do have to learn)
what that add__ ups to (adds up to)
who could __form at a . . . (perform at a higher level)
b)    Morpheme substitutions
Sometimes I have putten it in . . . (Sometimes I put  it in . . .)
a timeful remark (timely)
By his own admittance (admission)
Where's the fire distinguisher? (Where's the fire extinguisher?)
In accordance with those types of speech error classification, there are also some types which is considered as speech error
a.    Silent Pause    : it is a condition by which the pausing is exists during the speech. There is a period of no speech between words speech of talking. For example, turn on the // heater switch.
b.    Filled pause    : it is a gap which is filled by a…. ah,,,, er…. uumm.. etc. for example  turn on, ummm, the heater switch.
c.    Repeats        : basically the speaker intends to say something, though he/she makes speech error through repeating one of the words in a row. For example, turn on the heater/ the heater switch.
 

Types of Speech Error

Types of Speech Error

A.    Phonological Substitutions (Only lexemes)

a)    Perseveration

·    John gave the goy a ball (John gave the boy a ball)

b)    Anticipation

·    alsho share (also share)

c)    Feature Substitution

·    tap stobs ([^Voiced]) (tab stops)

·    Cedars of Lemadon ([^Nasal]) Cedars of Lebanon

B.    Lexical (Word) Selection Errors (Only lexemes)

a)    Semantically Based Substitution Errors

v    Antonym Substitution

It's too damn hot . . . , I mean, cold in here

He rode his bicycle tomorrow (yesterday)

All I need is something for my elbows (shoulders)

v    Synonym Substitution is not perceived as an error:

I was starving (ravenous)

on the couch (sofa)

on the pier (dock)

b)    Phonologically Based Word Substitutions

He has a new commuter (computer)

The instructions gave no inclination . . . indication as to how to do it

verbal outfit (output)

his immoral soul (immortal)

c)    Word Substitutions with Morphological Stranding

they are Turking talkish (talking Turkish)

it waits to pay (pays to wait)

you have to square it facely (face it squarely)

d)    Blends (Only lexemes)

My stummy hurts (stomach/tummy)

There's a dreeze blowing through the room (draft/breeze)

It was maistly, ah, mostly his doing (mainly/mostly)

At the end of todays lection (lecture/lesson)

This is not much of a universary (university/nursery)

e)    General Malapropisms : penggunaan kata yang tidak tepat.

a peckeral (cockerel)

He picked some gutter pups (butter cups)

I'm ravished! (ravenous!)

It's the Chinese who practice Acapulco (acupuncture)

He was concreted (cremated)

f)    Spoonerisms (Can you figure out the targets?)

Work is the curse of the drinking class.

You have hissed all the mystery lectures, I saw you fight that liar behind the gymnasium, and, in short, you have tasted the whole worm (Reverend Spooner)

Speech Error

Definition

Speech Error is the disruption in the production of speech through a conscious or unconscious linguistic deviation from the apparently intended form of an utterance. Linguistic speech error analysis is based on the hypothesis that the phenomena of deviation observable in different components are limited by the structure of the language and can be described and explained on the basis of grammatical units and regularities and that speech errors cause one to posit inferences to basic mental abilities and representations. (Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics).General Classification of Speech Error

Broadly speaking, there are two major point of speech error classification. The first is called as Articulation disorder. It is deviation or confusion of the main articulator such as the lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, velum, glottis, and the tongue
The second is Phonological Disorder. It is the condition when people could not be able to identify the differences between particular phonemes, for example between /k/ and /t/ in the word “call” and “tall”. However, different pronunciation will lead to different meaning.

Causes of Speech Error
Since it happens either consciously or unconsciously, the condition of the speaker however influences the speech error production. It commonly occurs when speaker is nervous, tired, anxiety, or intoxicated. When people are nervous or anxiety, the metabolism in their body declines which causes the signal inside the body transfers impulse to the brain.

In addition, it derives the adrenalin hormone to do harder which finally engages the heart. This condition consequently influences the irregularity of people. Because of this biological condition, people are stuttering when they are nervous or anxiety.

There is also a physical aspect that causes speech error. For instance, genetic syndrome like Down Syndrome, Speech Development like Autism, Hearing Loss, Illness, Neurological Disorder. Some people with speech problems, particularly articulation disorders, may have hearing problems. Even mild hearing loss may have an impact on how a person reproduces the sounds they hear. Certain birth defects, such as a cleft palate, can interfere with someone's ability to produce speech.

When a person has a cleft palate there is a hole in the roof of the mouth, which affects the movement of air through the oral and nasal passages. There also may be problems with other structures needed for speech, including the lips, teeth, and jaw.

Genetics may also play a role in some speech problems. For example, stuttering seems to run in some families. But in some cases, no one knows exactly what causes a person to have speech problems.